Particularist or Universalist?

Latin, African, and Asian cultures are Particularist. The Particularist believes morality is situational, and depends on the relationships of the participants and context. Particularists know that there are multiple perspectives on any situation. How you view an event depends on your role in it, who else is involved, and the context. Hard and fast rules don’t make sense to the Particularist. How can you apply the same rules to all situations?

Germanic language ( English, German, Dutch, Afrikaans, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic) countries are Universalist.  Universalists do not believe ethics are situational. There is a single truth, not multiple perspectives.  Universalists believe rules and laws are objective and unchanging, and must be followed by everyone regardless of the situation. Relationships and context are secondary or irrelevant.

Cultural differences in morals and ethics are difficult to overcome. They can cause conflict in negotiations, contract agreements, concepts of “honesty”, and trust in relationship building.

These are typical communication styles of each.

Universalists
• Speak in absolutes
• Prefer direct communication with clear details of agreement
• Get down to business attitude
• Particularists may find their behavior rude and abrupt

Particularists
• Speak vaguely
• Prefer indirect communication
• Often digress or go off topic
• Avoid absolutes

What to do when your partner doesn’t speak English:

1.  Assess Language Level

• Look for blank stare, tense body language, both signs of not understanding.
• Ask yes/no questions for low level
• Ask open-ended questions with why and how for intermediate  level
• Ask client to repeat key words, main ideas or important information.

2. Beware of Cultural Filters

• Do not equate an accent, poor grammar, or lack of fluency with lack of intelligence.
• LEP clients may say they understand when they don’t, to save face. Check comprehension.
• Asian LEP clients may smile or giggle when they do not understand or when they feel uncomfortable.
• Their cultural framework is different than yours. Expect difference, not similarities.
• Show respect; you don’t have to agree. Listen to learn, not refute.

3. Listen Actively

• Be quiet. Allow pauses. Give the other time to think as well as to talk.
• Listen for key words, main ideas.
• Pay attention to nonverbal communication.
• Don’t interrupt, speak over, or finish their sentences.

4. Adjust Your Speaking

• Do not repeat yourself louder if they don’t understand.
• Use short sentences with simple grammar and vocabulary.
• Use signposts (first, second, after that, etc) to lead the listener through your thought process.
• Stay on topic. Don’t digress.
• Avoid idioms, jargon, acronyms and slang.
• Speak at a slower rate than with you would with native speakers.

5. Reinforce With Visuals

• Restate information with visuals, i.e. pictures, maps, tables.
• Use facial and hand gestures to emphasize and clarify.
• Demonstrate.
• Summarize in an email or written summary. Give handouts.

6. Design Better Programs (info sessions, workshops, etc)

• Divide material into smaller units and digestible chunks.
• Allow for breaks. Thinking in a second language is tiring!
• Plan for a longer time frame. Assume things will take longer than with  native speakers.
• Provide handouts.

Many expats are surprised to find that the values American teachers are trying to teach may be different from their own. Expats who understand the  classroom culture and who have regular communication with the school will be better equipped to handle cultural differences and conflicts as they arise. 

Inside the classroom
The American classroom is often more informal than many expats are used to in their home country. Students often work in groups and classroom conversation is normal. Students are encouraged to ask questions, express individual opinions, and think creatively. Rote learning is limited. Class participation is highly valued and considered in grading. Children do not get homework every night, and in elementary school, they rarely get homework on the weekend.

What if I’m unhappy with my child’s school or teacher?
Speak up!  You can request a meeting with the teacher to discuss concerns. Come prepared with specific issues to discuss and the changes/results you would like to see. Express your concerns directly but politely. If you cannot resolve the issue with the teacher, you should make an appointment with the principal to discuss the problem.

Get involved!
For the expat’s trailing spouse, getting involved in your child’s school is a great way to learn about the culture, prevent isolation, meet other parents, and find out about your child’s classroom activities. Join the PTA, attend parent/teacher conferences, and volunteer for class and school activities.

While patient autonomy is held in high regard in the US, for many other cultures including Arab, Asian, Latin American, as well as parts of Eastern and Southern Europe, disclosing an illness is undesirable. It is seen as a burden to the patient while withholding information gives peace and hope.

Many non-western cultures believe the illness is a shared responsibility of the family. They may prefer that the family receive information regarding diagnosis, as well as make decisions about and organize patient care. The family may ask that the patient not be told of the diagnosis.

Patients and providers will work best together when the relationship is based on trust and respect. For this reasons, physicians must consider the cultural beliefs and desires of their diverse patients regarding illness and treatment.

Physicians should find out the preferences for disclosure at the time of intake, before any testing is done, to avoid appearing as if they are hiding information they already know.  Physicians should find out:

1. How does the patient/family view illness? Is it purely biomedical (Western) or more spiritual and holistic?
2. Does the patient/family value individual decision-making  or collective family decision-making?
3. Does the patient want to be told about the diagnosis, treatment options and possible outcomes? If so, in how much detail? If not, who should be told? Who will be responsible for decision making?

Physicians should show respect by incorporating the cultural values and beliefs  of patients and families into the decision-making process, even if it is in contrast to the physician’s own beliefs.

Understanding patients’ and one’s own beliefs will help clinicians identify typical barriers to effective health care delivery and outcomes that are due to cultural orientation.

Examples of customs and beliefs may include:

Latino
1. Personal relationship and trust between provider and patient is extremely important.
2. Belief in fatalism or God’s will. This can affect whether or not they seek care and adhere to treatment.
3. Medical decisions often involve the whole family.
4. May use traditional or folk healers and medicines.
5. Since Latin culture is hierarchical, patients often view the doctor as an authority figure and may not express disagreement or lack of understanding.

Asian
1. Asian culture views health in a more holistic light than in Western culture. Health is not only physical, but spiritual, social and environmental.
2. Balance and harmony of opposing forces leads to good health. (e.g. yin and yang; Ayurveda (Indian) medicine).
3. Fatalism affects views of illness. This can include punishment or curses from spirits for wrong doings in this or past lives.
4. Traditional healing includes herbal medicines, as well as acupuncture to restore flow of chi (the life force in everything)
5. Medical decisions are made with the family. Often, bad news is withheld from the patient.

African American
1. Faith and prayer are an important part of the healing process.
2. African American culture has a history of a strong mistrust of the health care system.
3. Belief in fatalism or God’s will.
4. Extended family and friends play an important role in successful treatment and healing.
5. Tradition of herbal remedies. Health care providers should ask about these to avoid potential drug interactions.

Here are some good websites for more information on patients customs and beliefs:

A Sample of Health Beliefs of Some Regions and Peoples of the World

Cultural Competence Health Practitioner Assessment

Learners must identify not only the stylistic norms in English communication, but in their native language as well, to develop awareness of what is and what is not, appropriate and effective. Identifying similarities and differences in stylistic norms will make you more aware of your errors in English.

The following are examples of styles contrasting with U.S. English:

It is important to remember that appropriate language use and cultural competence cannot be separated.  Language training must include helping learners recognize  both  linguistically and culturally appropriate usage, and to be able to apply this knowledge when communicating.

Linguistically appropriate usage (ie, grammar) is easier to learn and usually taught explicitly. Culturally appropriate usage is more difficult to adopt and is rarely taught explicitly. Awareness is the first step in this process.

Clinical staff must be familiar with the diversity of health care beliefs and practices across cultures. Clinical staff should be able to apply cross cultural strategies for effective intake and interviewing, history taking, and delivering bad news.

Non-clinical staff must know how to create a welcoming and helpful environment for LEP clients. They should be able to assess a client’s English language ability and adjust their message to better collect information, communicate processes and give directions.

When both clinical and nonclinical staff can communicate effectively and deal appropriately with clients from different cultures, you will see:

1. Decreased medical errors
2. Decreased medical costs
3. Increased patient satisfaction
4. Improved primary and preventative care
5. Improved patient comprehension of treatment
6. Improved patient completion of treatment and health care outcomes
7. Improved patient/provider relationships
8. Improved marketing to a major consumer demographic segment

How can American managers who are working with polychronic employees encourage a more time conscious work environment?

1.  Discuss in the hiring process. If you are hiring people from polychronic cultures, it is helpful to clearly define tasks and duties as well as standards about schedules, punctuality, deadlines and consequences for not meeting these standards.

2. Be seen. Lead by example. Let employees watch you work to see your pace and use of time.  Be punctual yourself . Keep to planned schedules and deadlines.  Be sure to arrive on time and prepared for meetings.  Make unscheduled visits to see how time is being used.

3.  Build relationships.  Polychronic cultures are also relationship oriented. Take the time to build relationships so workers will feel personally obligated to meet deadlines and schedules. Let them know how it negatively affects the team when they aren’t punctual.  A personal commitment to team success is excellent motivation. Praise team members when projects and tasks are completed on time.

4.  Set Dates and Targets – Be very clear about what specific deliverables are required on what specific date and/or times.   Give plenty of lead time. .Some workers may not have a clear idea of what is required of them and, for cultural reasons, not ask for clarification or question their superior. Make the dates and targets for each member clear to the entire team to get buy in from all members and to strengthen team cohesion.

5.  Address the team. Saving face and group acceptance are central to polychronic cultures. If deadlines and schedules aren’t met, address the entire team as an issue that affects them all. Have the team identify the reason for missed deadline and ways to avoid it in the future. Praising an employee by name as standing out from the group can be undesirable or embarrassing.

Monochronic Cultures:

• English speaking cultures, Northern Europe
• Are sequential and linear
• Do one thing at a time
• See time as a limited resource to be managed
• Dislike interruptions and digression and focus on completing the task
• Time commitments (deadlines, schedules, appointments) very important
• Are low-context
• Follow set plans
• Accustomed to short-term relationships

Polychronic Cultures:

• Hispanic, Arab, African, Asian cultures
• Are multi-track and circular
• Do many things at once. Time for different tasks can overlap,  as long as all tasks get done.
• View time as abundant.
• Are relationship oriented: Interruptions are normal, expected and often welcome.
• Fulfilling time commitments depending on circumstances and relationship.
• Change plans often and easily when circumstances change.

1.  Intonation
Intonation refers to the paralinguistic vocal features such as: pitch, loudness, resonance, quality and flexibility. Speakers vary these to  show intent and emotion.

2.  Stress
Stress is extremely important in English and carries a great deal of information. There is stress on both word and sentence levels. Stress can show contrast, if the information is old or new, the focus of the message and other information about the speaker’s intent.

3.  Thought Groups
This is how speakers’ group words into phrases to make their ideas clear.  Thought groups put information in understandable chunks to help lead the listener through the speaker’s message.

4.  Linking
Linking is how we transition from word to word. It is based on the last sound of the first word and the first sound of the next word. Without linking, speech sounds choppy and disconnected.

5.  Vowels /Consonants
English is not a phonetic language, so it is often hard to know how to pronounce  a word by its spelling. Pronunciation in English is based on sounds, not spelling. Some sounds in English (th for example) don’t exist in other languages.

Error in these areas can make it difficult to be understood by native English speakers. The degree of the problem will vary depending on one’s native language, awareness of English pronunciation rules, and personal differences in language learning ability.

What is your native language, and which areas do you find the most problematic?